Values

Cultural values are enduring beliefs that a given behaviour or outcome is desirable or good (Milton J. Rokeach). Our values, as enduring beliefs, serve as standards that guide our behaviour across situations and over time. Values are so ingrained that most of us are not really consciously aware of them and individuals often have difficulty describing them. Social values represent "normal" behaviour for a society or group. Personal values define "normal" behaviour for an individual. Personal values mirror the individual’s choices made from the variety of social values to which that individual gets exposed. Our value systems refer to the total set of values and the relative importance cultures place on them.
The specific nature of values varies. At the broadest level are global values that represent our core value system. These values are very enduring and strongly held by us. Shalom H. Schwartz and Wolfgang Bilsky have divided global values into seven categories. Within each of these global categories there are two types of global values. Terminal values are those that are viewed as highly desirable states such as freedom, equality, wisdom or comfortable life etc. Those values that are needed to accomplish the terminal values are referred to, as instrumental values such as loving, helpfulness, and honesty etc. which are needed to achieve equality, that is a terminal value. The seven categories are:
1. Maturity
2. Security
3. Pro-social behaviour (doing nice things to others)
4. Restrictive conformity
5. Enjoyment in life
6. Achievement
7. Self-direction.
There are numerous values that differ across cultures and affect consumption behaviour. Some scholars (G. Hofstede, S. E. Beatty, L. R. Kahle and P. Homer; and F. Hansen) have proposed a scheme of classification, which consists of three broad categories of cultural values:
1. Other-oriented
2. Environment-oriented
3. Self-oriented
Their view is that the cultural values which have the most profound effect on consumer behaviour can be put under one of these three categories. Though individual values can influence more than one, their foremost impact is generally in one of the three categories:
Other-oriented values are those that represent a society’s view of the proper relationships between individuals and groups within that society. For example, if a given society puts more value on collective activity, consumers will most likely tend to consult others for guidance in making a purchase decision and less likely to favour appeals promoting "individualism."
Environment-oriented values set down directions concerning a society’s relationship to its economic, technical and physical environment. For example, different types of marketing programmes would be appropriate for societies that stress risk-taking, problem-solving and performance-oriented approach to its environment; and the other that is fatalistic, security-oriented and status-oriented in its approach to environment.
Self-oriented values are those that reflect the desirable goals and approaches, to life, of individual members of a society and have important implications for marketing. For instance, the acceptance and use of credit or loan facility is very much determined by how much a society values postponement versus immediate gratification of desires.
Classification of cultural values
Individual/Collective
Some cultures emphasise and reward individual initiative while some others encourage and value cooperation and conformity to a group. G Hofstede’s study shows that US, Canada, UK, Netherlands, Australia and New Zealand highly value individualism. On the other hand, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China, Hong Kong, India and Mexico are more collective in their orientation.
This value attributed to individual initiative or collective effort, is an important factor in differentiating cultures. It is also viewed as highly fundamental in influencing the self-concept and self-consciousness of individuals.
Competitive/Cooperative
Are individuals encouraged to compete and outdo other individuals or groups, or is achieving success by cooperating with other individuals and groups valued more? Is the winner admired more in the society? Variations on this value influence acceptance of advertising in a given culture. For example, comparative ads in Japan are considered bad in taste. Spain and Germany ban comparative advertising while such advertising is quite acceptable in India (Coke and Pepsi commercials and ads for many durable products) and is encouraged in United States.
Diversity/Uniformity
This aspect looks at upto what extent members of a particular culture embrace variety in terms of religions, political beliefs and other important attitudes and behaviours. For example, Indian culture values diversity and accepts all sorts of religions, political beliefs and a wide range of attitudes and behaviours. Such a culture is most likely to welcome diversity in terms of food, dress and a vast variety of products and services. A culture that values uniformity is unlikely to accept wide variations of tastes and product preferences.
Performance/Status
This relates to whether the opportunities, rewards and prestige accorded to individuals is based on performance or the source for these is an individual’s position, family, or social class. Does everyone have equal opportunity economically, socially and politically, or certain groups enjoy special privileges right at the start of life? Do people value the utility aspect of products and brands or are they valued for their reputation and status-related meanings?
The extent of people’s acceptance of inequality in power, authority, status and wealth, as natural or inherited, varies widely across societies. Certain countries such as India, Hong Kong and Japan are believed to be relatively high in their acceptance of power. Sweden, Denmark and United States are relatively low in their acceptance of power.
Tradition/Change
Is tradition so deeply ingrained that any progressive change or alteration is strongly resisted? D Kim, Y Pan and H S Park have noted that Chinese and Koreans are somewhat uncomfortable in dealing with new ways of thinking and situations. India too, is a very tradition bound country and people in general are uncomfortable with change.
Risk taking/Security
Is risk taking to overcome obstacles valued? Are those with established positions admired or considered foolish for taking risks in starting new ventures? This value seems to be directly related to a spirit of entrepreneurship, economic development and new-product acceptance.
In societies that discourage risk taking and promote security, less people are likely to become entrepreneurs to achieve economic success and contribute to economic growth.
Problem SOLVING/Fatalistic
Some societies are more fatalistic in their outlook than others and believe that whatever is destined will happen. This discourages people from taking initiative and less inclined to think that challenges may offer opportunities. They do not subscribe to “we can do it” orientation. In India, fate is a very important factor and people generally believe that everything related to their lives is predetermined and it is impossible to escape fate. Such values discourage people from expressing formal complaints with an unsatisfactory purchase.
Sensual gratification/Abstinence
Some cultures are more permissive and allow satisfying one’s desire for food, drink, or sex beyond the minimum requirements and believe that there is no virtue in postponing such desires. Muslim cultures in certain countries are believed to be extremely conservative on this value.
Material/Non-material
Is the accumulation of material wealth considered a positive value and does it bring more status than knowledge? Materialism is of two types. Instrumental materialism refers to the acquisition of things that enable people to do something. For example, acquiring a car can allow a person easy and comfortable transportation. Terminal materialism refers to acquiring things for their own sake, such as acquiring an expensive painting for the pleasure of owning it. The painting is not used to accomplish some other goal.
Religious/Secular
To what extent, do religious doctrines influence attitudes and behaviours of people? According to S S Al-Makaty, many Islamic and some Catholic countries are relatively more religiously oriented. India is a declared secular country while Pakistan is more religiously oriented. Religion plays a very minor role in Chinese culture. It is important for marketers to understand the extent and type of religious influences in a given culture to effectively develop marketing programmes.